A concise history of the goddess-like figures who evade both Christian and pagan traditions, from the medieval period to the present day In this riveting account, renowned scholar Ronald Hutton explores the history of deity-like figures in Christian Europe. Drawing on anthropology, archaeology, literature, and history, Hutton shows how hags, witches, the Fairy Queen, and the Green Man all came to be, and how they changed over the centuries. Looking closely at four main figures—Mother Earth, the Fairy Queen, the Mistress of the Night, and the Old Woman of Gaelic tradition—Hutton challenges decades of debate around the female figures who have long been thought versions of pre-Christian goddesses. He makes the compelling case that these goddess figures found in the European imagination did not descend from the pre-Christian ancient world, yet have nothing Christian about them. It was in fact nineteenth-century scholars who attempted to establish the narrative of pagan survival that persists today.

Although men dominated early Irish society, women dominated the supernatural. Goddesses of war, fertility and sovereignty ordered human destiny. Christian monks turned these pagan deities into saints, like St. Brigit, or into mortal queens like Medb of Connacht. The Morrigan, the Great Queen, war goddess, remained a figure of awe, but her pagan functions were glossed over and her role was obscured. Rosalind Clark juxtaposes early Irish texts with Anglo-Irish treatments of the same themes by Lady Gregory, James Stephens, and W. B. Yeats. She shows the fall in status of the pagan goddesses, first under medieval Christianity and then under Anglo-Irish culture, where the once-powerful goddess of the land evolved into a weak, melancholy victim, romanticized, unreal, and lacking sexual power or into a hag, the dispenser of death. The human loss only begins to be restored in Yeat's The Death of Cuchulain. Irish Literary Studies Series No. 34.

The contemporary search for the feminine face of God requires a re- examination of the relationship of Christianity to the pagan world in which it was born. This study inquires into extra-biblical sources of Marian piety, belief and doctrine. This publication has also been published in hardback, please click here for details.

PRE-CHRISTIAN EUROPEAN & MEDITERRANEAN RELIGIONS. In pre-Christian Britain the Great Goddess was worshipped either as an equal to the Gods or as an individual deity. From the Palaeolithic 'Earth Mother' to the Celtic goddesses of Boadicea and the Brigantes, this land once revered the divine feminine. Investigations into the history of the Great Goddess presents many questions. Over the past five years Simon Brighton and Terry Welbourn set out to discover what happened to the Goddess after she was evicted from her elevated position. Travelling throughout Britain, they have uncovered traces of the divine feminine: from holy wells and shrines, lost underground chambers to folklore, legends and fairy tales. Between them they have researched and photographed hundreds of sites.

While much work has been done on goddesses of the ancient world and the male gods of pre-Christian Scandinavia, the northern goddesses have been largely neglected. Roles of the Northern Goddess presents a highly readable study of the worship of these goddesses by men and women. With its use of evidence from early literature, popular tradition, legend and archaeology, this book investigates the role of the early hunting goddess and the local goddesses who were involved in all aspects of the household and the farm. What emerges is that the goddess was both benevolent and destructive, a powerful figure closely concerned with birth and death and with destiny of individuals.

Contrary to popular belief, the medieval religious imagination did not restrict itself to masculine images of God but envisaged the divine in multiple forms. In fact, the God of medieval Christendom was the Father of only one Son but many daughters—including Lady Philosophy, Lady Love, Dame Nature, and Eternal Wisdom. God and the Goddesses is a study in medieval imaginative theology, examining the numerous daughters of God who appear in allegorical poems, theological fictions, and the visions of holy women. We have tended to understand these deities as mere personifications and poetic figures, but that, Barbara Newman contends, is a mistake. These goddesses are neither pagan survivals nor versions of the Great Goddess constructed in archetypal psychology, but distinctive creations of the Christian imagination. As emanations of the Divine, mediators between God and the cosmos, embodied universals, and ravishing objects of identification and desire, medieval goddesses transformed and deepened Christendom's concept of God, introducing religious possibilities beyond the ambit of scholastic theology and bringing them to vibrant imaginative life. Building a bridge between secular and religious conceptions of allegorized female power, Newman advances such questions as whether medieval writers believed in their goddesses and, if so, in what manner. She investigates whether the personifications encountered in poetic fictions can be distinguished from those that appear in religious visions and questions how medieval writers reconcile their statements about the multiple daughters of God with orthodox devotion to the Son of God. Furthermore, she examines why forms of feminine God-talk that strike many Christians today as subversive or heretical did not threaten medieval churchmen. Weaving together such disparate texts as the writings of Latin and vernacular poets, medieval schoolmen, liturgists, and male and female mystics and visionaries, God and the Goddesses is a direct challenge to modern theologians to reconsider the role of goddesses in the Christian tradition.

In 1948 Robert Graves published The White Goddess. His study of poetic mysticism and goddess worship has since become a founding text of Western paganism. As Wicca emerged from what Graves called, a few hopeful young people in California, to over two million strong, The White Goddess has achieved near liturgical status. This rising appreciation brings all the problems of liturgical texts. Many pagans consider Graves' work like the goddess herself; awe inspiring but impenetrable. Stalking The Goddess is the first extensive examination of this enigmatic text to come from the pagan community and guides readers through bewildering forests of historical sources, poems, and Graves' biography to reveal his unorthodox claims and entrancing creative process. Relentlessly perusing each path, it explores the uncharted woods and reveals the hidden signposts Graves has posted. The hunt for the goddess spans battlefields, ancient manuscripts, the British museum, and Stonehenge. En route we encounter not only the goddess herself but her three sacred animals; dog, roebuck, and lapwing. Perhaps the muse cannot be captured on her own grounds, but now at least there is a map.

While much work has been done on goddesses of the ancient world and the male gods of pre-Christian Scandinavia, the northern goddesses have been largely neglected. Roles of the Northern Goddess presents a highly readable study of the worship of these goddesses by men and women. With its use of evidence from early literature, popular tradition, legend and archaeology, this book investigates the role of the early hunting goddess and the local goddesses who were involved in all aspects of the household and the farm. What emerges is that the goddess was both benevolent and destructive, a powerful figure closely concerned with birth and death and with destiny of individuals.

Throughout the literature of the Middle Ages, references are made to mysterious folk-traditions, concerning night-travels and pagan goddesses. These accounts are so uniform, so cross-referential, so widely dispersed over region and time, they cannot possibly be accidental or anomalous. They must indicate a wide-spread, well-fixed mythology. The origins of this belief-system clearly lie in a pre-Christian, pagan world-view.A great goddess sits at the head of this immense nexus of beliefs. She is given a bewildering number of names, but remains essentially the same wherever she is found. This goddess is a combination of the old mother-goddesses of Europe, who were not forgotten by fickle worshippers after the introduction of Christianity, but who continued to be remembered and worshipped by the women of Europe for centuries after, and who, in return, continued to participate in her followers? lives.